The previous post introduced the relationship between water and gender, and this post will add to this by understanding how cultural and social norms across the continent affect women and their relationship with water.
At the household level, water is needed for people’s livelihoods but also to complete different tasks, including cooking, bathing, washing clothes and dishes. Gender, as a social construct, has manifested social norms and gendered roles in society.
In South Africa, as is the case in many other countries, men are often considered the breadwinners, whereas women are typically responsible for completing domestic duties. Despite these common patriarchal views, such clearly split roles are hard to maintain in reality, as some households will not have a male head or the presence of both genders (male and female). This can occur for reasons such as death- which leaves women widowed – or migration in which men seek work abroad or in a different part of the country to better their household’s financial situation. This forms what is known as female-headed households (FHH), also known as "female-maintained," "female-led," "mother-centered," "single-parent," or "male-absent". In the past, female-headed households were not recognised, despite approximately 22% of households in Sub-Saharan Africa being FHH.
FHH experience different challenges compared to other households. For example, male responsibilities or duties that are left behind are transferred to females. This is deemed to be an expectation and the only option for balancing a household with no male figure in charge. For some, this additional pressure is managed well but others may struggle when familial and social support is limited.
FHH & Water
As a result of this, FHH are the most vulnerable households in terms of both poverty and food security, partially due to their limited control and ownership of resources such as land and cattle. In South Africa, legal rights such as ownership of land are only granted to men, increasing women’s dependency on their husbands or close family relatives, for example, their brothers. How does this link to water? This relationship between resource access and wealth status is important to consider, particularly in relation to water. In a study conducted by Ngarava and colleagues, they concluded that water insecurity was manifested in households that spent more income, time, and other resources in achieving their basic water demand. This was found to be the case for FHH as they would often carry a greater resource burden, as these females are responsible for sourcing, collecting, managing, and rationing this water source. Similarly, in times where water is scarce, women are more likely to feel the pressures as they need this water to complete different tasks such as cooking and cleaning. This makes them responsible for managing and rationing such resources.
A large proportion of FHH - 44.5% - will have access to piped water supplies. However, this does not consider the affordability of water as a resource. Figure one below shows that 79% of FHH in South Africa are between the wealth categories of ‘just getting along’ and ‘very poor’. Therefore, while water is a necessity, the cost of accessing it reimages water as a luxury that many cannot afford.
Figure one: Wealth status of female-headed households in South Africa
While there may not be a direct or explicit link between cultural norms and water, it is these norms, expectations, and gendered roles that determine the allocation and burden of resources. Therefore, female-headed households face a 'triple-burden' of lower earnings and assets, dependency on their male partners or family members, and having limited support in respect to daily duties and burdens. As discussed, men are assumed to possess such authority but in reality, it is women who undergo the process of collecting and managing resources such as water, especially when a male figure is absent. In the following blogs, I will explore this in more detail by highlighting women’s roles in water collection and sanitation and their impact on women and girls.
What are the chalelnges that FHH contend with across rural, suburban and urban devides in South Africa? Also, what are the geographic variation that make some FHH face up with more water accessibility issues than others? Wel presented post with references embeded.
ReplyDeleteHi, thank you for your questions. In regard to the geographic variation, there will definitely be a difference associated with the challenges faced by FHH in rural areas compared to those in urban areas. Social stigma is an issue faced mostly by women who are divorced, as they are often excluded from society. This has psychological implications such as added stress because of their isolation. In terms of accessibility to water, FHH will be impacted due to the proximity of water sources. As I have discussed in the following blog, rural areas are less connected to water sources, meaning that the majority of households will have to leave their homes to collect water. This burden lies on women, who must travel long distances to fetch water for household activities.
DeleteHi Anda, this was a very interesting post about FHH and the challenges they face. I was wondering if there are any opportunities associated with FHH? Would addressing cultural norms and gender expectations influence the challenges and opportunities FHH encounter?
ReplyDeleteHi Greta, thanks for bringing this to my attention, I had not thought of this before. Becoming the head of a family or household causes a power shift as women take the position of the decision maker, including economic and household issues. This means that women are given new opportunities for emotional and individual development, a sense of freedom, and experience of new challenges. On the surface, this might seem like an advantage and a way of empowering women but at the same time, it can add pressure and stress as women are left to manage everything by themselves, on top of existing responsibilities. Also, I question the extent to which women will be culturally or socially 'allowed' to make these decisions. Instead, they will usually need to consult with male family members such as their brother, before making a finial decision.
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